Citing Information Sources
When to cite evidence.
You must cite the source in the following circumstances:
- Directly quoting from a source verbatim (word-for-word)
- Paraphrasing (restating or summarizing a source’s ideas in your own words)
- Borrowing from others’ ideas on how to structure (or organize) the content of your speech
- Using the illustrations, diagrams or graphs of others
You do not need to cite a source in the following circumstances:
- You are reporting your own original ideas
- You discuss ideas that are commonly held (e.g., it is commonly understood that the Earth revolves around the Sun)
How to cite evidence.
In order to maximize the impact of your outside research on your audience, you will need to employ the following 3-step process when citing evidence.
- Preview the evidence. Begin by easing your audience into what is coming next so that they are ready to hear the evidence.
“According to the latest 2002 report from the Highway Safety Administration, seven out of ten accidents involve alcohol.”
- Explain the evidence. After your citation, don’t just move on. Take the time to interpret the evidence if it’s not clear and also apply it to your listeners. Do not let your audience draw their own conclusion. It is your responsibility as a speaker to explain the information for your audience.
“Most of us don’t think about it when we drive to the store or make plans to drive home for Spring Break, but the odds are that if we are in a car accident it will be a drunk driver that hits us.”
All citations.
Notice the components of the citation in step 2. Speech citations must state the name of the source (or in some cases, the organization) in order to make clear to the audience that the source is credible. Whenever possible, the citation should also include the date in order to let the audience know that the source is current. Depending on the type of source, the citation will need to include additional components as explained below.
Citing statistics.
When reporting statistical information, avoid the use of words such as prove. Instead, state that the statistics suggest or support. By their nature, statistics are not designed to prove. Rather, they are designed to suggest or support conclusions. Adhere to the following guidelines when using statistics in your speech:
- Use statistics sparingly. Your audience does not want to hear one number after the other or they will begin to tune you out.
- Round off complicated statistics to cut down on the amount of numbers the audience hears.
- Identify the source of each statistic.
- Explain your statistics:
“According to the latest 2002 report from the Highway Safety Administration, seven out of ten accidents involve alcohol.”
Citing Web sites.
As stated, you may use supporting material from a website if the author’s name is available. If you can not find the author’s name you must have the sponsoring organization (Mayo Clinic, The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, etc.). If neither is present you may not use the website. It should be a red-flag that the site may not be credible.
To cite information from a website you will need to include the author’s name and expertise (researcher, Dr., college professor, etc.) or the sponsoring organization, the date it was put on the Web. Again, if the author or sponsoring organization is not available, do not use it.
“The Tennessee Wildlife Resources Agency, or TWRA, reported on their website this year that bear attacks are rarer than lightning strikes on people.”
Citing expert opinion.
When quoting an expert you will need the person’s name and his/her credentials in order to establish credibility or expertise. Moreover, you will need the date the person was quoted.
“In the words of Dr. Phillip Sanjay, a professor at the University of Tennessee, in a 2001 interview, ‘The time is now to fund higher education.’”
Citing personal interviews.
When conducting an interview with someone, you will want to include the name of the person interviewed, their expertise or experience with the topic (their credentials), the date the interview was conducted, and mention that you conducted the interview.
“In an interview that I conducted last month, Mack Wilson, a manager at Ruby Tuesday’s in North Knoxville, says that there has been a decline in customers eating out in the past six months.”
Additional tips for citing sources:
How can I avoid redundancy?
When citing evidence, you may be concerned that it will be redundant to cite one reference after another. When more than one piece of information comes from the same source, cite it fully the first time (author, date, title, etc. based on the type of source) and then just refer back to the source the next time without citing it fully (i.e. “Dr. Miller also says…”). If you cite an organization the first time as “the Tennessee Wildlife Resources Agency, or TWRA” you may use TWRA for each additional time you use the source.
How many sources should I use?
You will often encounter situations in which several different sources are reporting similar information and wonder how (or if) you should cite all of the sources. Keep this idea in mind: using several sources that report the same information gives the listener more confidence in the accuracy of the information. For example, if ten of your friends reported that the recently released movie War of the Worlds is a great film you would likely have more confidence in that claim than if one friend stated the same opinion. Thus, when delivering a speech it is useful to note the number of sources reporting the same information and use one or two by name to support your message.
When should I cite?
Your speech will make use of ideas that often require citation. So, when do you cite sources? A good rule of thumb to follow is whether or not you “looked up” the information. If you were uncertain or unaware of the information before your trip to the library or the Web, make sure to cite the sources that you used. However, for the commonly understood ideas that you discuss, it is not appropriate to cite sources. For example, people do not cite Copernicus as the source of information for statements suggesting that the Earth revolves around the Sun. Moreover, it is commonly understood that World War II ended in 1945; no source citation is necessary to support that claim.
How do I prepare a bibliography page?
You have learned how to verbally cite sources in your speech. You will also be required to turn in a bibliography page with your preparation outline, which will be explained in the next chapter. This bibliography page should be completed in American Psychological Association (APA) format. The resources available at http://www.lib.utk.edu/instruction/citingAPA.html are helpful for preparing your APA-formatted bibliography page.
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